Title: Coat-of-Arm of the Byzantine Empire
Byzantium Empire Chronological Table
Christianity, Byzantium Empire and Rise of Islam – A Listing of Significant Chronological Events (Politics, Literature, Religion, Philosophy, Learning, Visual Arts, Science & Technology Growth)
Prepared by David Clendenning
September 26, 2019
Reference:
Bon, Antone, Byantium, Barrie & Jenkins, London, 1972
Alzonne, Clement. Istanbul, Fernand Nathan, Paris, 1937
Sherrard, Philip. Editors Time-Life Books. Byzantium, 1966, New York
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Byzantine_emperors
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constantinople
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_of_Constantinople_(674–678)
https://byzantium.gr
“Early Byzantine” history is now commonly seen as a part of the history of “Late Antiquity”.
The earlier period has been studied in far greater depth than in later centuries.
Ancient Rome The Kingdom: 753-509 BC
The Republic: 509-31 BC
The Empire: 27 BC – 476 AD
753-100 BC Rome: Foundations to the birth of Julius Caesar
At first was just a city-state consisting of Rome, however, the Roman Senate, consisting of prominent noble and rich figures in the city, had a very efficient system and shaped the future of the country. Disputes and conflicts of interests between senate members would be reached by a consensus and appoint a ruler called as “Consul”, answerable to the Senate.
The Roman Republic expanded its territories to all of Italy and into Europe, meeting the Barbarians, one of her long-time enemies.
The Roman Republic existed for centuries because of her commitment to the legal superiority of the senate. However, things started to change under the regime of Julius Caesar, especially after his capture of Gaul and Britain
450 BC According to tradition, the Law of the Twelve Tables was drawn up by 10 men. The people of Rome wanted the law written down because the legal system was essentially oral and decisions were up to the individual discretion the magistrate who was always a patrician, which led to abuses. By 440 BC plebeians and patricians were equal in the eyes of the law
270-265 BC Rome controls Italy apart from Cisalpine Gaul, which lay along both banks of the River Po. The Gauls had been there since the sixth century BC. Transalpine Gaul was an area populated by Ligurian, Celts and Greek settlers in the in south. Taking the south of Transalpine Gaul in between Aix 122 BC and Narbonne in 118 provided the expanding Roman Empire a land route to Spain. The Etruscans and the Volsci are defeated. There is considerable contact between the Romans and Greek civilization
149-146 BC Third Punic War. The destruction of Carthage by Scipio. Macedonia a province. Rome controls Sicily and North Africa
100 BC – 43AD Julius Caesar to the invasion of Britain
73 BC Spartacus leads the slaves against Rome and is defeated by Pompey in 73 BC
63 BC Pompey ends war with Mithridates and campaigns in Syria, Judea, Petra and into the Caucasus. Octavius is born. Cataline conspiracy crushed
60 BC The first triumvirate. Pompey, Caesar and Crassus
55 BC Caesar in Germany and Britain. Pompey in Spain. Crassus in Syria. 53 BC, Crassus a disaster in Syria and his death at battle of Carrhae
51 BC Caesar writes his Gallic Wars. 50 BC end of Gallic Wars. Gaul as far as the Rhine is a Roman province
49 BC Caesar crosses the Rubicon, the frontier between Rome and the north. The power struggle and civil wars begin between him and Pompey
48 BC Pompey defeated in Egypt and he is murdered there. Caesar with Cleopatra. The library at Alexandria is destroyed
44 BC Caesar assassinated on 15 March – the Ides of March
42 BC Brutus and Cassius defeated at Philippi
30 BC Battle of Actium. Octavian and Agrippa crush Antony who flees to Egypt and Cleopatra. They both die and Octavian returns to Rome
27 BC Roman Empire begins. Octavian takes the name Augustus and establishes his position as emperor.
14 BC Death of Augustus; Tiberius now emperor
69-30 BC Cleopatra V11 Philopator was the last active ruler of the Ptolemaic Kingdom of Egypt. After the death of Cleopatra, Egypt became a province of the Roman Empire, marking the end of the Hellenistic period that had last since the reign of Alexander (335-323 BC). Her native language was Koine Greek, and she was the first Ptolemaic ruler to learn the Egyptian language.
Egypt lost its independence for good to the Persians in 343 BC. Alexander the Great took over from the Persians in 332. Greek was the language of government in Egypt until the Arab conquest a thousand years later.
After Alexander, the audience for hieroglyphic writing dwindled but remained a fixture in traditional Egyptian priesthood but the language of business and law was Greek. Hieroglyphics was not the language of ordinary people but a formal script for religious and government use.
Last known hieroglyphic inscription (The Graffito of Esmet-Akhm or Philae 436) on a wall is dated to 394 BC in the temple Isis at Philae (436) as temples were turned into Christian churches. At the time, Roman Egypt had been largely Christianized, and Egypt was a separate diocese within the Praetorian prefecture of the East.
43 BC Conquest of Britain
43-42 Liberator’s civil war
224 Persia and the Sasanian monarchy (224-651)
271 Emperor Aurelian overthrows kingdom of Palmyra
272 Birth of Constantine
284 Accession of Diocletian
286 Diocletian (284-305) divides Roman Empire between four emperors with himself as their chief.
293 Proclamation of Constantius and Galerius as Caesars
301 Armenia, First Christian Kingdom. St. Gregory the Illuminator (257-332) persuades Armenian king, Tiridates 111 in 301 to embrace Christianity. First time Christianity becomes the official religion of a country
305 Diocletian and Maximian abdicate; Constatnius and Galerius become Augusti; Severus and Maximinus proclaimed Caesars
296-311 The Great Persecution of Christians. One of the four caesars (junior emperor), Galerius, in the East who succeeded Diocletian, led the attacks on the church but on his death-bed revoked the edits of persecution.
306 Constantius dies in York; Constantine is proclaimed emperor and ends persecution in Gaul, Spain and Britain
Maxentius seizes power in Rome
306-307 End of persecution in Italy and Africa
311 Galerius issues an edict of toleration ending persecution in Danubian provinces and in Greece
312 Constantine invades Italy and defeats Maxentius: Battle of Milvian Bridge (Battle of Saxa Rubra). Victory of Constantine 1 over the army of the Western emperor, Maxentius
313 Maximinus attacks Licinius (April) but is defeated and killed (c. July): Licinius finally ends persecution in Asia Minor and the East
Beyond 300 Father of Church History: Eusebius of Caesarea (260-339), Christian Bishop of Caesarea in Palestine (313), and Historian, whose account of the first three centuries of Christianity in his editions of the Chronicle (an outline of world history) and Ecclesiastical History (in seven books), is a landmark in Christian historiography.
During his narrative of the church’s history in inserted the accession of Roman emperors and of the bishops of the four great sees (Alexandria, Antioch, Jerusalem, and Rome). The work was revised and enlarged several times between 312 and 324, the year before the Council of Nicaea.
Eusebius was not only a recorder of history, but one of the key players at a significant turning point for the church. His era was marked by the “Great Persecution” under Diocletian and his co-rulers (303-311), the conversion of Emperor Constantine (312) and the council of Nicea (325)
325 At the Synod of Antioch, strongly anti-Arian, Eusebius and two of his allies, Theodotus of Laodicea and Narcissus of Neronias in Cilicia, were provisionally excommunicated for Arian view.
When the Council of Nicaea, called by the Roman emperor, Constantine 1, met later in the year, Eusebius had to explain himself and was exonerated with the explicit approval of the emperor
Spread of Christianity to most parts of the Roman Empire, especially in Asia Minor and North Africa, and beyond to present-day Armenia, Iraq and Iran
Historically, in pre-Islamic times, the term Syria also included northern Mesopotamia, south-eastern Anatolia and Lebanon. Syriac, the Edessan dialect of Aramaic, became from the 4th century the chief language of Christians in the Middle East. Syriac Christianity not only created a very rich literary and manuscript tradition, but also left a large number of works of architecture and art.
For many centuries after the Arab conquest and the Islamization of the greater part of the population, Syriac Christian communities continued their religious and cultural life, producing works of art.
There are many examples of Syriac Christian art outside of Syria as well. Syrian missionaries, mainly from the eastern Syriac Church or Church of the East (also known as the Nestorian Church) reached Central Asia, India and China, where many Christian artefacts of that tradition have survived as a result. There were two peak periods in the missionaries’ activities: the 7th–9th centuries and from the 13th to the first half of the 14th century. The second period coincided with the Mongol conquest and was a consequence of the Mongol dynasties’tolerance towards religious minorities.
Civil Wars of the Tetrarchy (306-324)
311 After almost two and a half centuries of persecution by Roman Emperors, Christians were given permission to worship in public for the first time
313 Edict of Milan, granted freedom of conscience and worship to all religions and restored Christian property. Christianity officially recognized
316-317 First war between Constantine and Licinius
324 Licinius, Emperor in the East, a pagan, resumed this persecution of Christians and a religious war began with Constantine defeating Licinius in the battle of Chrysopolis in 324.
Licinius defeated and deposed (September)
Constantine becomes ruler of the whole Roman Empire and founds Constantinople
Constantine (in 324) was the first emperor since Diocletian (All: 284-286; East: 286-305) to rule both the east and west of the Roman Empire
Constantinian Dynasty (330-383)
306-363 Reign of Constantine 1, the Great (r.306-337)
West: 312-324, All: 324-337
First Roman emperor to convert to Christianity, became a generous patron and protector of the church
In 324, Constantine reformed the structures of the empire.
Constantine gave Bishops equal in ranks to senators, making them almost like state officers. In theory, the church and the state were soon as one. But Christianity was not official or “established” religion of the empire.
However, Constantine did give presents, endowments, and property to Christian churches and built several basilicas, including St. Peter’s in Rome, used Christian symbols on his coinage and Roman standards, and declared Sunday a rest day
325 Council of Nicaea: First Ecumenical (Universal Church) Council at Nicaea (modern day Iznik) to deal with a heretical Arian crisis. This was the first of what was to be a series of four councils that regulated discipline and defined theological doctrine in the Christian church.
In the years following the Council of Nicaea, the emperor was bent of achieving unity within the church, and so the supporters of the Nicene Creed in its extreme form soon found themselves forced into the position of dissidents. Athanasius of Alexandria (335), Marcellus of Ancyra (336) and Eustathius of Antioch (337) were expelled
Nicene Creed, also called Niceno-Constantinopolitan Creed, a Christian statement of faith that is the only ecumenical creed because it is accepted as authoritative by the Roman Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, Anglican, and major Protestant churches.
The Nicene Creed was an enlarged version of the Creed of Nicaea and was issued at the Council of Constantinople (381) but first explicitly stated at the Council of Chalcedon in 451, with the object of bring the Creed of Nicaea up to date in regard to heresies about the incarnation and the Holy Spirit that had arisen since the Council of Nicaea
The so-called Filioque clause (Latin filioque, “and the son”), inserted after the words “the Holy Spirit, …who proceeds from the Father,”, was gradually introduced as part of the creed in the Western church, beginning in the 6th century. It was accepted by the papacy in the 11th century. It has been retained by the Roman Catholic, Anglican, and Protestant churches. The Eastern churches have always rejected it because they consider it a theological error and an unauthorized addition to a venerable document
St. Nicholas (270-342, Bishop of Myra in Lycia is said to have been at the Council of Nicaea; opposed Arius the heretic. Became Patron saint of sailors and protector of children. As his fame with gift-giving to children spread over the centuries he became associated with Christmas. Later, patron of countries like Greece and Russia; widely depicted in icons dressed as an Orthodox bishop
327 Constantine tried to unite East and West under his rule and, in order to be at the centre of his empire, moved east in 327 to a new capital Roma Nova
330 Formal Inauguration of Constantinople, the “New Rome”. Constantine transfers the capital from Rome to Constantinople. Marks the conventional start of the Byzantine Empire (or the Eastern Roman Empire)
As a result of Constantine’s move, the bishop of Rome becomes the most prominent figure in the West
337 Constantine the Great dies on May 22, being baptized on his deathbed; Summer 337, dynastic rivals to Constantine’s sons killed; succeeded by his three sons, Constantine 11, Constantius 11, and Constans.
326 The Classical World
All religious traditions had been tolerated under the Roman Empire, although Christians suffered to some extent because of their sedition. They stated openly that they desired the destruction of the Empire, encouraged soldiers to desert, apparently assassinated opponents, vandalised sacred monuments and statues, and tried to destroy the city of Rome by means of arson.
As soon as the Empire became Christian, this toleration ceased. The only writing to be permitted were those supported by the line currently regarded as orthodox. By 326 Constantine had authorised the confiscation and destruction of anything that challenged orthodoxy (i.e. the orthodoxy established the previous year). This included non-Christian places of worship as well as works by pagan authors and by all other Christian factions. Soon afterwards Constantine’s mother Helena and Macarius, the Bishop of Jerusalem, were supervising the destruction of a temple in Jerusalem dedicated to Aphrodite, and building a Christian basilica on the site. This basilica, now the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, was imagined to be the very burial site of Jesus and to encompass the place of crucifixion. Evidence was conveniently discovered in the form of a tomb and miracle working splinters of the True Cross. Countless thousands of architectural treasures from classical times were soon being vandalised in the same way and turned into Churches.
339 Eusebius dies, leaving Life of Constantine unfinished. Acacius succeeds Eusebius as bishop of Caesarea and publishes Life of Constatnine
340 Constantine 11 killed in Battle of Aquileia, fighting his brother Constans. Rome again splits into two empires, with Constans as Western and Constantius as Eastern Emperor
338-363 Wars against the Sassanid Persians. Treaty with Persian results in loss of the empire’s Armenian lands and much of those in the Mesopotamian region
361 The Harbour of Julian is constructed at Constantinople
Non-Dynastic (363-364)
Valentinian Dynasty (364-379)
Valentinian the Great (364-375) ruled as emperor of the East and appointed his brother Valens (364-378) as emperor of the West
363 Treaty with Persians results in loss of the empire’s Armenian lands and much of those in the Mesopotamian region
374 St. Ambrose becomes Bishop of Milan
376 The Aqueduct of Valens is completed in the centre of Constantinople
378 Battle of Adrianople (modern Edirne). Gothic (Visigoths) tribes defeat the Byzantines. Death of Emperor Valens
The Aqueduct of Valens is completed in the centre of Constatinople
Theodosius Dynasty (379-457)
379-395 Sixteen year Reign of Flavius Theodosius 1, the Great (r. 379-395)
Theodosius rule the East 379-392 and all from 392-395; last ruler of a united Empire
380 A State Religion: Theodosius made Christianity the compulsory religion of the state.
382 Theodosius resettles the Visigoth in the empire
390 The obelisk of Theodosius is erected in the Hippodrome
391 Prohibition of pagan cults: Closes down all the pagan temples in 391, for bidding any practice of pagan rites
“It is our will”, Theodosius decreed, “that all the peoples we rule shall practice that religion that Peter the Apostle transmitted to the Romans”
By the beginning of the 5th century, Christians made up a majority of the population. Missionaries continued to set up churches and teach the Christain faith in Greek and Latin
395 Theodosius dies; succeeded by Honorius and Arcadius who re-divide the Empire. Arcadius becomes emperor
Divided Empire 402-476
396 Separation of the Western Empire, with its capital at Rome becomes permanent. Later the capital is moved to Ravenna. Eastern Empire’s capital becomes Constantinople
400 Armenia (400-600)
400-751 Ravenna was one of the most important cities of late antique Europe. Between 400 and 751 AD, it was the residence of western Roman emperors, Ostrogothic kings, and Byzantine governors of Italy, while its bishops and archbishops ranked second only to the popes. During this 350-year period, the city was progressively enlarged and enriched by remarkable works of art and architecture, many of which still survive today.
404 St. John Chrysostom is exiled because of his criticism of Empress Eudoxia; in the resulting riots, Hagia Sophia is burned
408 Theodosius 11 succeeds Arcadius
410 Sack of Rome by Alaric the Visigoth
413 Construction of Constantinople’s triple walls is begun under Theodosius 11
432 Building begins on Basilica of S. Maria Maggiore, Rome (432). Galla Placidia erects her famous Mausoleum at Ravenna (446). Building of the Basilica of S. Stefano Rotondo, Rome, begun 483
440 Huns reappeared on the borders of the Roman Empire. Invade the Balkans in 441. Huns attack Constantinople in 442 but unable to take the city
455 Rome is sacked by the Vandals
463 The monastery of St. John of Stoudion is founded
457 Leo 1, Eastern Roman Emperor (457-474)
474 Zeno marries Ariadne, daughter of Leo the Wise, and begins his rule
From 461 Last Western Roman emperors: Severus )-465, Athemius (-467), Alybrius (-473), Glycerius )-474), Julius Nepos (-475), and Romulus Augustulus (-476)
476 End of the Empire in the West. The last Western Emperor, Romulus Augustulus, is deposed by Odovar the Ostrogoth, and the imperial office in the West comes to an end. Rome taken by Odovar and was declared King of Italy
Kingdom of Italy (476-774)
484 The pope’s excommunication of Patriarch Acacius of Constantinople leads to first schism between the Western and Eastern Churches (484-519); reconciliation in 519
Kingdom of Lombard falls in 774 to Charlemagne
Leonid (Thracian) Dynasty (457-518)
Leo 1 (457-474)
491 Anastasius 1 marries the Empress Ariadne, becomes emperor and reigns for 27 years
502-540 Wars with the Sassanid Persians. Persia and the Sasanian monarchy (224-651)
Justinian Dynasty (518-602)
518 Justin 1, son of an Illyrian peasant, takes the Byzantine throne
525 Antioch is destroyed by earthquake
527-565 Reign of Justinian 1, the Great. Reign for 38 years with his wife, Theodora. Revived the empire. Constantinople reaches its cultural and economic zenith. First Golden Age of Byzantine Art
527 The Church of Saints Sergius and Bacchus is erected. Incense is introduced into Christian church service (500)
529 Justinian closed the 1000-year-old School of Philosophy in Athens, an action directed against paganism rather than Greek philosophy; many professors go to Persia and Syria
529 The Code of Civil Laws-the Codex Vetus of Justinian is adopted as basis of Byzantine law. Justinian replaces Codex Vetus by Codex Repeitae Praelectionis in 534
532 Hagia Sophia and other building in Constantinople are severely damaged by fire during the Nika riots; construction is begun on present Hagia Sophia and completed 537; underground cistern and St. Savior in Chora are built
533-534 Byzantine victory and end of the Vandal Kingdom of North Africa
539 War breaks out between Persia and the Byzantine Empire (-562)
535-554 Gothic War in Italy
541-2 Justinian Plague in Constantinople imported by rats from Egypt and Syria, soon spread all over Europe. The plague changed the course of the empire, squelching Emperor Justinian’s plans to bring the Roman Empire back together and causing massive economic struggle. It is also credited with creating an apocalyptic atmosphere that spurred the rapid spread of Christianity. Recurrences over the next two centuries eventually killed about 50 million people, 26 percent of the world’s population. It is to be the first significant appearance of the bubonic plague.
547 Building of the Church of S. Vitale in Ravenna (double octagonal shape; mosaic portraits of Justinian and Theodora).
548 The Basilica of S. Apollinare Nuovo begun 535 by the Ostrogothic king Theodoric the Great as his palace chapel is completed 548. Mosaics in church in classe with one of the first representations of the Last Supper. The Golden Era of Byzantine art
549 In the Neo-Persian Empire of the Sassanid dynasty (founded c.224) music, dancing, chess, and hunting are cultivated
552 Justinian sends missionaries to China and Ceylon to smuggle out silkworms; beginning of European silk industry. By 553, the silk industry becomes state monopoly in Byzantine Empire
553 Fifth Council of Constantinople (-555)
565 Justin 11 ascends the throne as emperor.
568 The Lombards drive the Byzantine from northern Italy to the south, but leave them in Ravenna
576 Tiberius 1 Constantine, adopted son of Justin 11 and the Empress Sophia, becomes emperor
570 Mohammed, founder of Islam, b. (d.632)
578 Tiberius 1 Constantine, adopted son of Justin 11 and the Empress Sophia, becomes emperor
582 Emperor Tiberius 1 d.; succeeded by Maurice (-602)
590 Gregory the Great becomes pope in Rome
End of 6th century Beginning of Slav invasions in Danube area. Threat to the Byzantine Empire’s northern border
After the fall to the western empire, the Eastern Empire is referred as Byzantium
Eastern (Byzantine) Emperors (602-1453)
600 Coptic art in Egypt: a mixture of Egyptian, Greek, Byzantine, and Arab influences
Byzantium transforming (600-700)
Armenian neighbours
Non-Dynastic (602-610)
602 Byzantine Emperor Maurice killed by Phocas, his successor (-610)
610 Heraclian Dynasty (610-695)
Emperor Heraclius (610-641) Rules for 31 years, distinguishes himself as a military hero in wars against the Persians. Changed the official language from Latin to Greek so all emperors after this date used Greek. Alive during the early conquests of the Muslims (Umayyad Dynasty); also, a contemporary of The Prophet Muhammad (571-632)
614 Capture of Damascus and Jerusalem by Sassanid Persians. Jerusalem razed and looted, including Christianity’s most precious relic, the True Cross (won back by the Byzantines in 628)
615 Wars against Avars & Slavs in northern Greece
619 The Persian in Egypt, Jerusalem, and at the Hellespont
620 Production of porcelain in China
626 Siege of Constantinople by Avars, Persians repelled by Emperor Heraclius
627 Battle of Nineveh. A decisive victory by Heraclius which ended the war with Persia
629 Battle of Mutah. A first conflict with the Arabs and a Byzantine victory with the Ghassanids (tribal group of Hellenized Arabian Christians in northern Arabia). Heraclius recovers Jerusalem
630 Cotton supposed to have been introduced in Arab countries
Mecca is conquered and becomes the spiritual centre of Islam
632 Death of The Profit, Muhammad. Before his death Mohammed had united the tribes of Arabia. Medina becomes the seat of the first elected Caliph, Abu Bakr (son-in-law). Beginning of Arab conquests against the Sassanid Persians and Byzantines (in Syria, Mesopotamia, and N.E. Africa) which were largely peopled by men of kindred Semitic stock
632 Fatima, Mohammed’s youngest daughter and mother of Hassan and Hussein, founder of the House of Fatimids, d. (b. 606)
634 Progress of Mohammedanism: Abu Bekr d. (b.573); succeeded by Mohammed’s adviser Omar 1 (-644), who begins the conquest of Syria, Persia and Egypt (“Holy War”).
635 Arab conquest of Persia is begun. Damascus becomes the capital of the caliph (-750)
638 Jerusalem falls to the Arabs under Caliph Omar1
639 Persia appeals to China for help against the Muslims. The Arabs attack Armenia
636 The Battle of The Yarmuk River. The first major military clash between Islam and the Byzantines. A decisive defeat by the Arabs (of the Rashidun Caliphate) which led to the loss of Syria and Palestine for the Byzantines. For ever, a millennium of Greco-Roman Lavant came to an end.
Heraclius was forced to concentrate on the defense of Anatolia and Egypt.
637 Arabs captured Jerusalem, Antioch and conquest of Syria and Mesopotamia
640-641 Arabs conquered Egypt. Emperor Heraclius died and help never came to Alexandria. Patriarch Cyrus surrendered the city in 641.
The Arabs find at Alexandra the famous library with 300, 000 papyrus scrolls
The Eastern Roman Empire is considerably weakened. The impact of the loss of Egypt was felt throughout the Mediterranean world. The decrease in annual grain shipment from Egypt struck a decisive blow to the Byzantine economy.
The churches of Jerusalem, Antioch, and Alexandria being lost to Christian faith
641 Confronting Islam: emperors versus caliphs (641-c.850)
641 The Arabs under Omar destroy the Persian Empire; the caliphs rule the country till 1258; Islam replaces the religion of Zoroaster
643 Building of the Dome of the Rock, Jerusalem, begins
647 Early Byzantine-Muslim Wars Arabs (Umayyads) conquest of North Africa.
649 The Arabs’ first naval expedition goes to sea against Byzantium. Arabs conquer Cyprus
650 Caliph Othman puts Mohammed’s teachings (Koran) into 114 chapters (influenced by Jewish and Christian theology)
Development of the art of weaving in Byzantine empire
655 Muslim fleet destroys Byzantine fleet at Lycia
660 The Omayyads become caliphs. Islamic building in Omayyad style (-750), in Spain till 1000)
668 Emperor Constans 11 is murdered in his bath at Syracuse by a member of the entourage. Constantine 1V becomes emperor
670 The Arabs attack in N. Africa
673 Arabs begin their first attack on Constantinople
A Number of Events that Changes the Course of World History
674-678 Emperor Constantine 1V (668-685) faced the first Arab unsuccessful siege of Constantinople by the Umayyads. Just prior to the siege, a Greek refugee, Kallinikos, from Syria invented for the Byzantine Empire a new weapon known as the “Greek fire”, a missile weapon of sulfur, rock salt, resin, and petroleum.
The siege of Constantinople, six years, (672-9) was a critical moment, and the first of several times that the walls of Constantinople saved Byzantium and the western world from the Muslims. The Byzantine victories of this period ended the immediate threat to eastern Europe, and the peace lasted almost 30 years.
THE MIDDLE EMPIRE C. 700-1204
State of emergency (700-850)
680-708 Early Bulgarian Wars
682-698 Muslim conquest of North Africa. Carthage, the last Byzantine stronghold in Africa, was destroyed in 697 and its glorious history was over.
692 Under Justinian 11, peace with the Arabs ended the short period of Byzantine supremacy. The Bulgarians aid the Byzantines
693 The Arabs defeat Justinian 11 at Sebastopolis, Cilicia and in 694 overrun Armenia
Twenty Years’ Anarchy (695-717)
695 Paoluccio Anafesto becomes the first
doge of Venice
695 Justinian 11 deposed by Leontius (-698)
First Arab coinage
697 Carthage, the last Byzantine stronghold in Africa, falls to the Arabs. Destroys Carthage
698 Emperor Leontius deposed by Tiberius 111 (-705)
700 Arabs conquer Algiers-Christianity in N. Africa almost exterminated
Greek instead of Latin, becomes the official language of the Eastern Roman Empire
705 Justinian 11 becomes once more Byzantine Emperor (-711)
708 Pope Sininius (Jan.-Feb.) succeeded by Pope Constantine (-715), the pope to visit the emperor in Constantinople
710 The Bulgarians advance toward Constantinople
China refuses to help the Kashgarians against the Arabs
The reign of Walid 1 becomes the most brilliant in the history of the caliphate
Justinian 11, the first to kiss the pope’s foot, confirms the privileges of the Roman see
711 Justinian 11 murdered by Philip Bardanes, who as Emperor Philippicus ascends Byzantine throne
Moslems from Africa conquer most of Visigothic Spain. Arab Gen. Tarik defeats King Roderic at Xeres de la Frontera, and Spain, with the expection of Asturias, becomes an Arab state. Roderic, the last king of the Visigoths in Spain
Span. Jews, freed by the Arabs, begin their cultural development
712 Height of the Lombard kingdom in northern Italy
The Arabs occupy Samarkand and make it a centre of Islamic culture; here they learn the art of making paper
Seville conquered by the Arabs
Pope Constantine opposes the emperor on the question of the Monothelite heresy
713 Anastasius 11, Byzantine Emperor (-715)
715 The Muslim empire extends from the Pyrenees to China, with Damascus as its capital
Emperor Theodosius 111 (-717)
716 The Arabs conquer Lisbon
Isaurian Dynasty (717-867)
717 Arabs begin another siege of Constantinople, but are defeated by the emperor-general Leo 111, who reigns thereafter for 24 years.
Emperor Leo 111 (717-741) seizes the throne of Byzantium from Theodosius 11 and establishes the Isaurian Dynasty.
Caliph Omar 11 (-741) grants tax exemption to all believers
718 Arabs (Umayyads) defeated at 2nd siege of Constantinople and destroys their fleet. By 740, emperor-general Leo 111 able to consolidate this power and rebuild the walls of Constantinople. Reigns for 24 years
724 Caliph Hisham (-743)
726-847 Opposition to the use of images: Iconoclastic crisis begins: Leo 111 bans religious icons within Christianity; official policy of Leo 111 and Constantine V. By 727 image-worship controversy between the Byzantine Emperor and the pope
Abu Masa Dshaffar, famous Arab chemist who supposed invented sulfuric acid, nitric acid, aqua regia, and nitrate of silver
732 Charles Martel victory over the Arabs at Battle to Tours and Poitiers stems the tide of their westward advance.
739 Pope Gregory 11 ask Charles Martel for help against the Lombards, Greeks, and Arabs. Charles Martel dies in 741. Son Pepin the Short becomes mayor of the Frankish court. Charlemagne, son of Pepin, b. 742 (d.814)
741 Constantine V Copronymus succeds to the throne of Byzantium (-775) and renew the prohibition of image worship
745 Emperor Constantine V defeats the Arabs (-751). 748, Arab fleet destroyed during an attack on Cyprus
750 The Umayyad Caliphate wiped out and is succeeded by the Abbasid Caliphate (Abu-al-Abbas rules till 754)
The succession to the Byzantine throne is generally determined by violence and treachery
751 Paradigm Shits during the Global Middle Ages: Three major events in 751 had profound consequences for four empires, and produced long-lasting cultural changes in the 8th century
Ravenna is captured and sack by the Lombards, and the Byzantine exarchate comes to and end. Byzantine control over the Papacy is broken. Eastern Roman Empire finally ceased to be “Roman,” becoming exclusively “Byzantine” or “Greek.”
Rise of the Frankish Empire (692): End of the Merovingian Empire and the rise of the Carolingians. Pepin (741-768), son of Charles Martel (715-741), in alliance with the Papacy seized the Kingdom of the Franks and crowned in 751. He and his son Charlemagne became key protectors of the Papacy, allowing for a new political and ecclesiastical state of affairs to emerge in Western Europe
Abbasid – Tang War:
In the Battle of Talas The Chinese Tang dynasty, loses western Asian dominion to the Arabs (Abbasids Caliphate) and their ally the Tibetan Empire. The victory made Islam and the Abbasids a powerful presence in the region. Although the Tang dynasty would limp on until 907, the battle the extend of the Abbasid Caliphate’s borders, though Islam as a faith would continue to spread eastwards.
The Muslim’s conquest had brought a vast web of trade and communications routes under their control.
With raids from Byzantium taking advantage of the recent upheaval of that year, and an independent emirate established by the last Umayyad in Cordoba in 756, Abbasid attention was suddenly drawn westwards
Introduction of paper into the Islamic world. Among prisoners captured by the Abbasids were papermakers, who were then sent to Samarkand. The production of paper would spread into Western Asia, and eventually to Europe. The superiority of paper as a writing material would greatly aid literary and scientific discourse throughout the Abbasid Empire and beyond
These three events would have profound consequences in both Europe and Asia, with the Carolingian and Abbasid dynasties emerging to be key powers, while the Byzantine and Tang dynasties would see a decline. The events of 751 made that year one of the most important dates in history
The four sects of Islam: Sunnites, Hafenites, Shafites, and Malikites
755 Califhate of Córdoba (-1031) founded by Abd-al-Rahman
War between the Byzantine Empire and the Bulgarians
756 Al Mansur sends military aid to Hsüan Tsung to crush rebellion in China after Emperor Ming Huang resigned
Abdu-r-Rahman 1 establishes emirate of Córdoba, independent of Damascus.
760 Founding of Turkish Empire by a Tartar tribe in Armenia
762 Bagdad is founded by the Caliph el Mansur
763 Caliph al-Mansur moves his capital from Damascus to Baghdad
768 Pepin the Short d.; his kingdom is ruled by his two sons, Charles (Charlemagne) and Carolman (-771).
771 Charlemagne, after the death of brother, sole ruler of the Frankish kingdom (-81); Charlemagne (Charles the Great). Subdues Saxony (772) and converts it to Christianity
780 Constantine V1 becomes emperor
782 Abbasid invasions of Asia Minor. Arabs dangerously close to Constantinople now
785 Building of the Mosque of Cordoba begins (-900)
787 Seventh and last Ecumenical Council recognized by the Eastern Church meets in Nicaea; condemn the practice of iconoclasm as heresy and restored and the veneration of icons to Christian practice. Regulates image worship
Mosque of Córdoba constructed
790 Golden period of Arabic learning during the reign of Harun al-Rashid
797 The politically ambitious Empress Irene of Athens (797-802), mother of Constantine V11, blinds her own son to become sole ruler, calling herself “emperor” Irene reigned during the time of Charlemagne; restores image worship (the Greek Church canonized her)
802 Palace revolution deposes Irene and proclaims Nicephorus emperor and dies in 802
800 The imperial office in the West is revived by the coronation of Charlemagne (742-814), King of the Franks (768-814) and first Holy Roman Emperor (as Charles 1) 800-814, in western Europe. From this point on we have an emperor in the west and the Byzantine emperors in the east.
Pope Leo 111 separates from the Eastern Empire and becomes supreme bishop of the West. Charlemagne reforms the Church and adopts at the Synod of Aix-la-Chapelle the “Filioque”
Nikephorian Dynasty (802-813)
802 Nicephorus 1 becomes Byzantine Emperor (-810) dethroning Irene
803 Bulgarians free themselves from Tatar dominance
Byzantine Empire recognizes the independence of Venice
Mosaics in Church of St. Germain-des-Prés
804 A more violent phase in the long history of the Byzantine-Arab (Abbasid) Wars begin
807 War between the Franks and the Eastern Empire
810 Michael 1 Rangabe, Byzantine Emperor (-813)
813 In 813, one of Irene’s generals, an Armenian, becomes Leo V, the Armenian, (813-820) and again puts a ban on icons
Caliph Mamun (-833): his reign considered the Augustan age of Arabian literature and science
814 Charlemagne d.; succeeded by his son Louis the Pious (-840). In 817, divides France among his sons: Lothar becomes coregent, Louis receives Bavaria, Pepin Aquitania. Retrogression of Western Empire in political and social importance begins after Charlemagne’s death
Building of Doge’s Palace, Venice begun
809-815 Expansion of the Bulgarians to the south
815 The second phase of the iconoclast synod takes place in Constantinople
Non-Dynastic (813-902)
817 Pope Paschal 1 (-824)
Amorian Dynasty (820-867)
820 Phrygian Michael 11, the Amorian, Byzantine Emperor (-829) succeeds the murdered Leo V on Christmas
Dismemberment of Abbassid caliphate, founding of Taherite dynasty at Khurasan
822 Add-al-Rahman, Caliph of Córdoba
826 The Arabs conquer Crete and plunder from there to the Greek islands
827-902 Muslin conquest of Sicily and parts of southern Italy lasted 80 years. Palermo captured 830-831, Syracuse 877-878 and Taormina in 902. Rule of the island by the Muslims lasted from 965 until 1061. Byzantium never took back Sicily
827-828 Saracen Mediterranean Pirate Raids: Andalusian Muslim exiles invaded Crete and gradually capture the whole island, establishing the Emirate of Crete, under the sovereignty of the Abbasid Caliphate. The conquest transformed the naval balance of power in the Eastern Mediterranean and opened up the Aegean Sea coasts to frequent and devasting raids. It was the start of the golden period of the Saracen piracy
829 Reign of Theophilus (-842) begins and coincides with period of Muslin culture’s greatest influence of Byzantium
830 Caliph Mamun founds the Academy of Translations at Baghdad
832 Caliph Mamun invades Egypt
Persecttion of image worshipers in the Eastern Empire
838 Battle of Dazimon (Anzen). First confrontation of the Byzantine army with the Turkic nomads from Central Asia, whose descendants would emerge as Byzantium’s major antagonists in the future
Arabs sack Marseilles and settle in southern Italy; in battle at Amorion, Asia, they defeat the Byzantine army
842-867 The Reign of Michael 111 (842-867), which marked the greatness of Middle Byzantium
Michael 111 (842-867) ends iconoclasm and restores iconic images. He established the official scheme of Byzantine church decoration when he built the Church of Our Lady of the Pharos at his palace. Constantinople enjoys a renaissance of the arts
Turkish mercenaries join Arab armies
Treaty of Verdun, division of the Frankish empire; Lothar receives Italy and Lorraine and remains Emperor; France goes to Charles 11, the Bald, Germany to Louis 1, the German.
Three Carolingian synasties: German (-911), French (-987), Italian (-875)
846 The Arabs sack Rome and damage the Vatican. Venetian fleet destroyed by Arabs
After iconoclasm (850-886)
850 Bulgarian Empire on the Volga with capital at Kiev. Northman begin, along the waterways of Russia, to trade with Constantinople and the Khazans
The Arabian goatherd Kaldi credited with the discovery of coffee
855 Lothar 1, emperor since 840, divides this empire among his three sons: Louis 11 receives Italy with the imperial crown; Charles, Provence and southern Burgundy; Lothar 11, Lorraine (Lotharingia-named after him)
859 Norse pirates enter the Mediterranean and sack the coast up to Asia Minor
Ashot 1 founds Bagratide dynasty in Armenia
860 The Russians make their first attack on the Byzantine capital and are repulsed. Raids of the Rus (Norseman) on Constantinople 860, 941, 944 and in 907
Religious missions
862 Rurik, the first Russian grand prince, founds Novgorod. Rostislav, ruler of Moravia, asks the Byzantine Emperor Michael 11 to send missionaries to his country.
In 863, Cyril and Methodius, the “apostles of the Slavs,” start their work in Moravia and invent a Slavic alphabet-the Cyrillic. In 864, Prince Boris 1 of Bulgaria accepts Christianity
863 After the storm of Muslim conquests of the 7th century, the Byzantium Empire found itself confined to Asia Minor. Arab raids continued into Asia Minor throughout the 8th and 9th centuries. Byzantium was generally on the defensive, suffering sometimes catastrophic defeats. After 842 and the rise of semi-independent emirates beyond the Byzantine eastern frontier, the Byzantines were increasingly able to assert their own power and was the beginning of Byzantium’s century-long successful offensive in the east.
865 The Russian Northmen attack Constantinople
867-1056 Macedonian dynasty (867-1056)
Second Golden Age of Byzantine Art
Basil 1 867-884
Basil 1 establishes the Macedonian Dynasty. During this period the medieval Byzantine empire reached its peak, called the Macedonian revival or Byzantine Renaissance. The Basilian code is completed
Leo V1, the Philosopher 886-912
868 Tulunid dynasty in Egypt (-935)
869 Malta captured by the Arabs
Eighth Council of Constantinople (-870)
Byzantium and southern Italy (876-1000)
878 The Arabs conquer the whole of Sicily from Byzantium and make Palermo the capital. The Emperor Basil reconquers Italy from the Arabs in 880
879 The pope and the patriarch of Constantinople excommunicate each other
Ibn Tulun, the oldest mosque in Cairo built
884 Emperor Charles 111 becomes king of France (-887_ and once more unites the empire of Charlemagne. In 887, Charles , deposed, is succeeded as emperor by Arnulfof Carinthia (-899), who fight the Slavs and Northmen. Final separation of Germany and France
886 The Emperor Basil d.; succeeded by Leo V1, the Wise
897 War between the Bulgarians and the Saracens
Western approaches (900-1025)
900 Beginning of the Christian reconquest of Spain under Alfonso 11, the Great, of Castile
Constantinople still the first city in the world, its commercial and cultural centre
Islamic ornamentation (arabesques) develops from late Greek and Byzantine elements
901 Beginning of Samanid rule in Persia
902 Work begins on the Campanile of St. Mark’s, Venice (collapses in1902)
904 The sack of Thessaloniki, second greatest city of the empire, by Saracen pirates. One of the worst disasters to befall the Byzantine Empire in the 10th century
907 Commercial treaties between Kiev and Constantinople
905-15 The Tulunid dynasty of Egypt deposed in 905. Rise of the Fatimid dynasty in Kairouan, N. Africa in 909. Egypt, in 915, invaded from Tunisia by Fatimid armies
913 The emperor-scholar,Constantine V11 Porphyrogenitus begins his reign, coregent with Romanos 1
914-944
Romanos 11 959-963
917 Symeon 1 assumes the title “Czar of the Bulgarians and Greeks.” Bulgarian Church separates from Rome and Constantinople
919 Byzantine Empire extended to Euphrates and Tigris
927 Peace treaty achieved between Bulgars and Byzantium
929 Abdu-r-Rahman 111 proclaims the caliphate of Córdoba. Córdoba becomes the seat of Arab learning, science, commerce, and industry in Spain
939 The Arabs lose Madrid to the kingdom of León. Add-al-Rahman (caliphate of Córdoba) defeated by Ramiro 11 of León in Battle of Simancas
941 Russians make surprise attack and lay waste to Asiatic shore of Bosporus
944 Threating battle forces of Russia’s Prince Igor leads to commercial treaty with the Russians
948 Romanus 1, one of Byzantium’s greatest rulers, dies in exile as a monk
950 Europe in the “Dark Ages”
955 Russian Grand Duchess Olga christened at Constantinople
957 Russian Princess Olga is feted at imperial court
959 Romanus 11, Byzantine Emperor (-963)
960-961 Recapture of Crete for Byzantium ending piracy by the Cretan Saracens. The island remained in Greek hands until the Crusades
963 Nicephorus 11 Phocas (963-969) gains the throne through his marriage to the Empress Theophano widow of Romanus 11
965 Capture of Tarsus. Aleppo and Anitoch in 969 by Phocas. Anitoch remained in Byzantine hands until 1084 when it was captured by the Seljuk Turks who held it 14 years before the Crusaders arrived
963 Foundation of the Great Laura, Mount Athos
969 John 1 Tzimisces (969-976) becomes emperor by marrying Theodora, sister of Romanus 11
971 The Rus and Bulgarian allies lose Bulgaria to Byzantium Empire. In 1014 the Bulgarian were decisively defeated. By 1018, the Byzantine border were restored to the Danube after 400 years
976 The last great ruler in the Macedonian Dynasty, Basil 11 Bularoctonus (976-1025), ascends the throne. Under Basil 11 Bulgaria was subdued in 1018 after 20 years of war, interrupted only by sporadic warfare in Syria against the Fatimids. Basil also expanded Byzantine control over most of Armenia. His reign is widely considered as the apogee of medieval Byzantium
With Pope Sergius 111(-911) begins the era of pornocracy, the darkest period in the history of the papacy; his mistress Marozia becomes the mother of Pope John X1 (931-936), and the grandmother of Benedict V (973-974)
980 The Kievan Russians become Christian under the Prince Vladimir 1 of Kiev. Byzantium concessions included autonomy of the Russian church and the marriage to Prince Vladimir to Byzantine Princess Anna, Emperor Basil’s sister. This was a most significant and tempting honour, since the princess was a Porphyrogenite (born to the Purple) and in those days was considered sacred. The fact that Russia received Christianity from Byzantium and not from Rome was of immense importance in the future development of her arts, and brought in its trail consequences of great significance
962 Ottonian dynasty named after its first Emperor, Otto 1. A line of Saxons of German monarchs (919-1024). Later called Holy Roman Empire.
963 Nicephorus 11 Phocas, Byzantine Emperor (-969) marries Theophano, his predecessor’s widow, and defeats Arabs and Bulgarians. Conquers Cyprus from Arabs in 964
966 Otto 1’s third expedition to Italy against Byzantines in Apulia. Otto 11 (-983) crowned emperor in Rome in 967. In 972, Otto 11 marries the Byzantine Princess Theophano
969 Fatimid style in Syrian-Egyptian architecture (-1170)
First monastic foundation of Mt. Athos, Greece
972 Founding of Cairo University
973 Otto 1, the founder of the Holy Roman Empire of the German nation d.; he is succeed by his son Otto 11 (-983; already crowned in 967)
976 Hisham, Caliph of Córdoba: prime of Arab science, art, and philosophy
Building of St. Mark’s, Venice begins
983 Venice and Genoa carry on flourishing trade between Asia and Western Europe
988 Vladimir of Kiev (became Prince in 980) marries Anne, sister of the Emperor Basil 11, and introduces the Eastern form of Christianity into his dominion. Dies in 1002
993 First canonization of saints
996 Cane sugar arrives in Venice from Alexandria
999 Last expedition of the Emperor Basil 11 against the Fatimid in Syria
1000 Venice rules over Dalmatian coast and Adriatic Sea
Emperor Otto 111 makes Rome his permanent residence (crowned in 996 emperor by Gregory V, the first German pope (-999)
Artistic revival in Italy (fresco and mosaic paintings)
Chinese perfect their invention of gunpowder, made up of charcoal, sulfur, and potassium nitrate
1002 Almanzor d.: beginning of the fall of caliphate of Córdoba. Muzaffar, Caliph of Córdoba (-1008)
1018 Balkan borderlands (1018-1204)
1009 The Mohammedans sack the Holy Sepulcher in Jerusalem
1118 The empire of the Komnenoi (1118-1204
1015 Arabs conquer Sardinia
1017 Basil 11 conquers the Bulgarian kingdom and annexes its territories
1025 Basil 11 dies and the heroic age of Byzantium is concluded
Romanus 11, Byzantine Emperor (-1034)
c.1028 St Savior Pantepopte is built and mosaics are restored in Hagia Sophia
1018-1071 Norman Conquest of Southern Italy. Battle of Cannae, 1018 – a Byzantine victory in their first clash with the Normans. By the end of the century, most of southern Italy was under Norman control. By1066-1071, saw the end of the Byzantine (and Greek) presence in Italy
1040 Raiders and neighbours: the Turks (1040-1304)
1042-1055 Reign of Constantine 1X Monamachus 9-1054) marked by invasions by the Pechenegs in the Balkans and the rise of the Seljuk Turks in the East. His reign was the beginning of the decline of the Empire
1048 First major conflict with the Seljuks who in the next decades would become the Byzantines major enemy.
1054 The Byzantine Church breaks with Rome. Growing rift between Western and Eastern churches end in Schism between the Church of Rome and the Patriarchate of Constantinople. Christian Church officially splits into Western (Catholic) and Eastern (Orthodox) Churches
Non-Dynastic (1056-1057)
Michael V1, Eastern Emperor (1056-1057)
Komnenid (Comneni) Dynasty (1057-1059)
Isaac Comnenus, Eastern Emperor (-10560
Doukid Dynasty (1059-1081)
Constantine X, Eastern Emperor (-1067)
1060 “Christ as Ruler of the World,” Byzantine mosaic, Daphni, Greece
1064 Hungarians seize Belgrade from Byzantium. The Seljuks conquer Armenia
1067 Turks storm Caesarea
Byzantium to Turkey, 1071-1453
1071 The Byzantines are defeated by the Seljuk Turks at Manzikert and the capture of Emperor Romanos 1V. It was the most decisive disaster in Byzantine history. It opened the doors to the systematic conquest of Anatolia by the Seljuks in the end to the 11th century. A chain of events followed which led to the loss of the Empire’s Anatolian heartland and to the gradual Turkification of it. Byzantine authority in the East never recovered
Bari captured by the Normans; Byzantine’s loss of southern Italy
Constantine the African (c.1020-1087) brings Greek medicine to the Western world
1075 Syria and Palestine subdued by Seljuk leader Malik Shah
1078 Nicephorus 111, Eastern Emperor
(-1081)
Michael Psellos, Byzantine Platonist philosopher, d. (b. 1018)
1080 Armenian state established in Cilicia
1081-1203 Komnenid (Comneni) Dynasty (1081-1185)
Alexius 1 Comnenus, Eastern Emperor (-1118), establishing the Comneni Dynasty
Commercial treaty between Venice and Byzantium
1081 The imperial court moves to the newly enlarged Blachernae Palace
Alexius 1 Comnenus (1081-1118) becomes emperor, establishing the Comneni Dynasty
Alexius 1 reign dominated by wars against the Normans and the Seljuk Turks, as well as the first Crusade against the Sultanate of Rum to capture Jerusalem and the establishment of independent Crusader states.
1084 Alexios 1 Komnenos grants the Venetians a commercial basis in Constantinople and an exemption from trading duties, in return for their aid. It was a fatal error that contributed to the decline and fall of the Empire
1086 Almoravid dynasty revives Mohammedan rule in Spain
1091 Byzantines defeat the Pecheneg army. It was a decisive victory and the first for the Komnenian restoration. Marked the resurgence of Byzantine power that would last for 100 years
1091 Nicaea was captured by the Seljuk Turks n 1081, and became the capital of the Sultanate of Rum.
1082 Seljuk Sultan Malik Shah d.; capital moved from Iconium to Smyrna
1094 St. Mark’s, Venice completed. The first record of gondolas in Venice
1096 The First Crusade is launched (-1099) with Godfrey of Bouillon, Duke of Lorraine, and Tancred, nephew of Robert Guiscard. In 1091, the Byzantines capture the city with the help of the Crusaders. Crusader went on to capture Jerusalem 2 years later
1097 The Crusaders defeat Turks at Dorylaeum, conquer Nicea
1098 Crusaders defeat Turks at Antioch
1099 Crusaders take Jerusalem. The Kingdom of Jerusalem is established by the Crusaders. Godfrey, appointed Defender of the Holy Sepulcher, defeats Egyptian at Ascalon
1100 Appearance of Gothic architecture (St. Germain-des-Près, Paris)
Decline of Islamic science begins
1104 Acre taken by Crusaders
1111 Byzantines grant important trading rights to Pisans
113 Founding of St. Nicholas, Novgorod, one of the earliest onion-domed churches
c.1120 The monastery of St. Savior Pantocrator is founded
John 11 1118-1143
Manuel 1 1143-1180
Under Manuel 1 successful campaigns launched against the Turks, Hungary and achieved supremacy over the Crusader states, and tried unsuccessfully to recover Italy
Andronicus 1182-1185
1122 The Byzantines exterminate Patzinak Turks
1123 The Byzantine John 11 defeats Serbs and then the Hungarians in 1124
Omar Khayyam, Persian poet and astronomer, d. (b. 1027)
1126 Venetian commercial privileges in Byzantine Empire renewed
1147 2nd Crusade begins
1149 Byzantines, aided by Venetians, retake Corfu from Normans
1130 Roger 11 crowned King of Sicily at Palermo
1140 Nisami, Persian poet, b. (d.1202)
1143 Manuel 1, Byzantine Emperor (-1180)
1146 Nureddin, Sultan of Syria (-1174)
1147 Crusaders perish in Asia Minor: failure of the Second Crusade
Moscow mentioned for the first time
1149 Byzantines, aided by Venetians, retake Corfu from Normans
c.1150 The walls of Manuel 1 are built to enclose the Blachernae Palace
1160 Normans expelled from North Africa
1165 Byzantium allies with Venice against the Emperor Frederick 1 Barbarossa who is crowned in 1167
1170 Saladin of Damascus (-1193) subdues Egypt (-1171)
1171 Venetians throughout the empire are arrested and their properties confiscated
1172 The Venice Grand Council restricts the powers of the doges
1180 The Serbian monarchy is established by Stephen Nemanja
1183 The Emperor Alexius 11 murdered; succeeded by Andronicus (-1185)
Saladin takes Aleppo
1184 Cyprus frees itself from Byzantium
Tamara, Queen of Georgia (-1212)
1185 Isaac 11 Angelus, Byzantine Emperor (-1195)
Renewal of quarrel between the pope and the emperor
Second Bulgarian Empire founded by the brothers Ivan and Peter Asen
1185 Normans (of Sicily) invade Greece and slacked Thessalonica, the second city of the Byzantine Empire. The disaster lead to the dethronement of Andronicus (tortured to death) and deepened the rift between Orthodox Greeks and the Catholic Latins. Normans were defeated and returned to Sicily where, after a few years, their kingdom was conquered by the Germans
1186 The second Bulgarian empire is founded
1187 Jerusalem is captured by Saladin
1189 The Third Crusade (-1193) is launched
Angelid Dynasty (1185-1204)
Emperor Isaac 11 Angelos (1185-1195), (1203-1204). 3rd and 4th Crusades.
1190 After the passing of the 3rd Crusade, the Byzantine campaigned against the Bulgarians but were decisively defeated and the Imperial treasure was captured.
In 1190, Order of German Hospitalers founded (transformed in 1198 into Teutonic Order).
Richard 1 (England) conquers Cyprus and sells it to the Templars
1195 Emperor Isaac 11 Angelos was deposed by his brother, Alexius 111 (-1203). In the West, Innocent 111 became Pope in 1198 and called for a 4th Crusade
THE BYZANTINE LANDS IN THE LATTER MIDDLE AGES 1204-1492
1201 The Fourth Crusade begins
1204 4th Crusade (-1204): Capture of Constantinople by Western armies under Boniface of Monferat, with Venetian help, during the Fourth Crusade. The city was sacked and many ancient and medieval Roman and Greek works were either stolen or destroyed. “There was never a greater crime against humanity than the Fourth Crusade” – Medievalist writer, Steven Runciman, 1954,
The Greek rumps states and the recovery of Byzantium
Establishment of the Latin Empire of Constantinople and the Frankish states
Byzantine emperors go into exile.
The Emperors set up independent kingdoms
Laskarid Dynasty (Empire of Nicaea, 1204-1261)
1208 Theodore 1 Lascaris establishes the Greek Empire of Nicaea and becomes first of the Geek emperors of Nicaea
Alexius Comnenus founds the Empire of Trebizond and the new state (later Despotate), Greek kingdom of Epirus or Arta
1207 Seljuk Turks (Rum) taking advantage of the weakness of the Byzantine Empire of Nicaea after the fall of Constantinople, captured Atttalia (Antalya), a major path to the Mediterranean
1211 Genghis Khan invades China (-1215) and captures Peking in 1214; conquers Persia in 1218
Balkan powers: Albania, Serbia and Bulgaria (1200-1400)
1212 Venice conquers Crete
Children’s Crusade
1217 Crusade against sultanate of Egypt fails
1222 John 111 Dukas Vatazes marries Irene, daughter of Theodore 1 Lascaris, and rule for 32 years
1223 Mongols invade Russia, battle of Kalka River
1227 Genghis Khan d.; his empire divided among his three sons
The Jap. Potter Toshiro, who travelled for four years in China, return home and starts porcelain manufacture in his country
1228 Sixth Crusade, led by Emperor Frederick 11
1236 Alexander Nevski, Grand Duke of Novgorod (-1263)
The Arabs lose Córdoba to Castile
1237 Mongols conquer Russia (-1240), take Moscow
1238 Moorish kingdom of Granada. Construction of the Alhambra in Granada and the synagogue of Santa Maria la Blanca in Toledo
1240 Crusade of Richard of Cornwall and Simon de Montfort to Jaffa
1241 Battle of Liegnitz, Silesia: Mongols defeat Germans, invade Poland and Hungary; the death of their ruler Ughetai forces them to withdraw from Europe
1242 Batu, grandson of , Genghis Khan, establishes his warrior – the “Golden Horde” – at Sarai, on the Lower Volga
1243 Anatolia under the Mongols, 1243-1335 after the defeat of the Seljuks
1244 Egyptian Khwarazmi takes Jerusalem
1244 Genoese take Rhodes
Seventh Crusade, led by Louis 1X; Louis 1X lands in Egypt in 1249. The Saracens capture Louis 1X in 1250; returns to France in 1254 from Palestine
1250 Commercial and industrial boom in northern cities
1251 Kublai Khan becomes Governor of China, and in 1259 Mongol ruler (-1294)
1256 “Hundred Years War” between Venice and Genoa
1260 Byzantine Michael v111 Palaiologos (1259-1282) prepares for attack on Constantinople under Latin Emperor Baldwin 11
1261 Constantinople recaptured by the Greeks; Emperor Michael V111 Palaeologus crowned at the Hagia Sophia; re-establishment of the Greek dynasty of the Palaeologi but Byzantium never really recovered
1261-1453 Palaiolgan Dynasty (Paleologi and Cantacuzenes). Palaeologue Renaissance. Third Golden Age of Byzantium Art
1258 Mongols destroys 90% of Baghdad including the Library. Death toll 1,000,000
1261-1282 Reign of Michael V111 Palaeologus.
The Greeks recapture the south-eastern Peloponnese or Morea
The Greek province becomes a Despontate about 1350, with its capital at Mistra
1271 Marco Polo journeys to China (-1295); in the service of Kublai Khan (1275-1292). 1274, Kublai Khan fails to conquer Japan. Kublai Khan founds Yüan dynasty in China (1280-1368). In 1295, Marco Polo returns to Italy and, in 1298, begins to dictate his memoirs in a Genoese jail
1274 Byzantine Emperor Michael V111 comes to terms with Pope Gregory X, acknowledging papal primacy and the Roman faith
1283 The Teutonic Order completes subjection of Prussia
1284 Genoa defeats Pisa, this beginning of Pisa’s decline
1288 Osman 1 (-1326), founder of the Ottoman Empire
c.1290 St. Savior in Chora is restored and mosaics installed; the Parecclesion Chapel is added to the Church of the Blessed Virgin in Pammakaristos
1291 Mamelukes conquer Acre, ending Christian rule in the East. End of the Crusades; Knights of St. John of Jerusalem settle in Cyprus
1299 Treaties between Venice and the Turks, and France and Germany
End of 12th century Establishment and development of Serbian and Bulgarian kingdoms
to 2nd half 14th C
Latins in the Aegean and the Balkans (1300-1400)
1300 Ottoman Turkish conquests begin, diminishing the Byzantine empire. In 1301, Osman defeats Byzantines at Baphaion
1309 The Knights of St John captured the island of Rhodes as a Christian outpost until they were defeated and expelled by the Turks in 1522. Then, they moved to Malta
1317-1326 The capture of Bursa established the Ottoman Turks as the major power in Asia Minor, beginning the Ottoman Empire. Prusa (Bursa) became the Ottoman capital until the fall of Adrianople Erdinia) in 1362.
1326 Osman 1 Ruler of Turkey, d.
1329 The Turks capture Nicaea and other cities to become masters of Asia Minor
1350 onwards House of Osman: Osman 1 (1299-1324, Orhan 1) grows in power and comes in conflict with Byzantine Empire.
1331 The historic cities of Nicomedia and Nicaea (modern Iznik) captured in 1329. Nicaea was a symbol of Christianity and the most important Asian city in the Empire. Byzantine control across the Bosporus was lost forever and Turks become masters of Asia Minor
Conquests of Ottoman Turks in Asia Minor, the Greek Island and Europe
1333 Yusuf 1, Caliph of Granada (-1354), zenith of Arabic civilization in Granada
1339 Venice conquers Treviso; gains first mainland possession
1346 Genoese take the important trading centre of Chios
1347 Between 1346 and 1351, Black Death kills approx. 75 million people
1349 The Tower of Galata is built in Constantinople
1354 Ottomans take Gallipoli and set foot in Europe. In less than ten years, nearly all Byzantine Thrace had fallen to the Turks
1359 Ottoman Turks invade to the walls of Constantinople
1365 Murad 1 becomes Sultan and his first objective was to take Adrianople. The Ottoman capital moved from Bursa to Adrianople in 1366 and remained the capital until the conquest of Constantinople in 1453
1380 Timur begins his 35 successful campaigns to Persia, Georgia, Russia, Egypt, etc
1381 Venice wins the “Hundred Years War” against Genoa; flourishing of commerce, arts, and sciences
1382 Turks capture Sofia
1389 The Serbian empire falls to the Turks at the Battle of Kossovo
Bajazet 1, Emir of the Turks (-1403)
1390 Byzantines lose last possession in Asia Minor to Turks
1391 Manuel 11 begins his 34-year reign
The Roman orthodox world (1393-1492)
1393 Bulgarian Empire subjugated by the Ottomans (under Bajazet) who hold that country for the subsequent 500 years
1396 Bajazet defeats Christian army under Sigismund of Hungary at Nicopolis
1397 Constantinople is attacked by the Ottoman Sultan Bayazid
1398 Timur conquers Delhi
1400 Early Renaissance period (-1500)
1401 Timur conquers Damascus and Baghdad
1402 The Turks are defeated by Timar at the Battle of Ankara; Bajazet taken prisoner
1403 Bajazet d.; succeesed (-1411) by his son Suleiman 1
1405 Timur d.; succeeded by Shah Rokh (-1447)
1422 Constantinople is attacked by Ottoman Sultan Murad 11
1425 John V111 (-1448) becomes emperor and rules for 23 years
1430 Ottoman forces capture Salonika
1433 The double-eagle becomes the emblem of the Holy Roman emperors
1438 The Council of Ferrara attempts to end the religious schism between East and West in hopes that Christian union might save the empire
1440 Belgrade is unsuccessfully besieged by the Turks
1447 Scanderbeg defeats Murad 11, and gains independence for India, Persia and Afghanistan
1448 Murad 11 defeats János Hunyady at Kossovo
1449-1453 Emperor Constantine X1 Dragases, the final Byzantine emperor and last Roman Emperor, begins his four-year reign
1451 Mohammed 11, Sultan of the Turks (-1481)
1452 The Turks build the fortress Remeli Hisar, closing the Bosporus to Christian invaders
1453 Ottoman armies arrive at Constantinople on Easter, April 3rd, the holiest day in the Christian world. Twenty-three armies before had tried to take Constantinople but failed.
1453 29 May 1453. Capture of Constantinople by the Turks under Sultan Mehmet 11 (1421-1444, 1446-1451). Emperor Constantine X1 killed; end to East Roman (or Byzantine) Empire. Constantine’s legitimacy stretches back to Augustus (27 BC). The city’s capture marked the end of the glorious Byzantine Empire, which lasted for more than 1,100 years. It was also a massive blow to Christendom. Constantinople became the Ottoman Empire’s new capital
Official date of the end of the Roman Empire
1472 Ivan 111 married the Princess Sophia, niece of Constantine Palaeologus, the last of the Greek emperors, and assumed the double-headed eagle of the Byzantine Empire as the symbol of the Russian. From this date, Russian has had a vision of Constantinople as the centre of Russian power. It has been called the dream of Russia.
1490 The end of Byzantine history extends beyond the end of the empire in 1453, because the fall of Constantinople was one of many changes that gradually altered the intellectual and cultural landscape of the Eastern Mediterranean. There is need to include the generation of people who lived through the final defeat of the empire and wrote about the dissolution of the Roman Empire and the grow of the Ottoman power.
Constantine Palaiologos, the last Emperor, countered the third stage of Constantinople by the Ottomans, a siege that began on April 15, 1453 and ended in the Fall of the city on May 29 on the same year. Stories say the Constantine fought to the bitter end and killed in battle. Mehmed 11 ordered a search for his body and when found he buried the remains. Where was the lost tomb of Constantine? The most likely explanation is that for the first two years after the Fall of Constantinople, the Patriarchate took refuge in the temple of the Holy Apostles, which it used as its seat, and the last emperor was buried there. The church, however, was later abandoned by the Christians, with Mehmed 11 ordering it to be demolished to make way for the Fatih Mosque. If the bone of Palaiologos were indeed in the temple of the Holy Apostles, they were most like lost after its demolition or were perhaps moved to another location. Reports indicate that the remains of the Apostles and members of royal families were placed in two crypts to the right and left of the Church of Saint Theodosia, which was later converted into a Muslin mosque called Gul Mosque.
1492 (January) Surrender of Granada marks the end of the Moslem occupation of Spain. (March) Jews expelled from Spain. Those who choose to stay must convert to Catholicism. (October).
Columbus discovers America under mandate from Catholic Sovereigns.
Friday, July 10, 2020
Byzantine-era Hagia Sophia: Turkey converts Istanbul’s iconic landmark back into a mosque. Turkish President Recep Tayyip Erdogan on Friday legally changed the status of the Hagia Sophia museum to a mosque. The announcement came shortly after the country’s highest court, the Council of State, revoked a 1934 cabinet decision that turned the edifice into a museum. Administration of the building is to be turned over to the country’s religious authority, the Diyanet. The argument was that the building was the personal property of Mehmed 11, the Ottoman sultan whose forces captured Constantinople in 1453. Hagia Sofia is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. UNESCO warned that “a State must ensure that no modification is made to the outstanding universal value of the property inscribed on its territory”
The Hagia Sophia was built as a cathedral in 537 AD and remains an icon of the Eastern Orthodox Church. Its vast dome was the world’s largest enclosed space for centuries. It became a mosque after the Ottoman capture of the city in 1453, when wall painting depicting Christian imagery were covered in white plaster because of the Muslin ban on Iconography. Minarets were added to the side of the dome in the years that followed. After the building became a museum, the Christian wall painting were unveiled once more while the more recent Islamic calligraphy was retained.
August 21, 2020. Presidential decree issued to turn Byzantine Greek Orthodox Church of the Holy Saviour in Chora into mosque. Chora, which had been turned into the Kariye Museum after WW11 and was then